MALARIA

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

TB (TUBERCULOSIS)

Prevention and Control

If you have active TB, keep your germs to yourself. It generally takes a few weeks of treatment with TB medications before you're not contagious anymore. Follow these tips to help keep your friends and family from getting sick:

• Stay home. Don't go to work or school or sleep in a room with other people during the first few weeks of treatment for active tuberculosis.
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• Ventilate the room. Tuberculosis germs spread more easily in small closed spaces where air doesn't move. If it's not too cold outdoors, open the windows and use a fan to blow indoor air outside.
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• Cover your mouth. Use a tissue to cover your mouth anytime you laugh, sneeze or cough. Put the dirty tissue in a bag, seal it and throw it away.
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• Wear a mask. Wearing a surgical mask when you're around other people during the first three weeks of treatment may help lessen the risk of transmission.

HFMD (Hand, Food, and Mouth disease)

There is no vaccine to protect against HFMD. However, you can reduce the risk of getting infected with the viruses that cause HFMD by following a few simple steps:

• Wash your hands often with soap and water for 20 seconds, especially after changing diapers;
• Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth with unwashed hands,
• Avoid close contact (kissing, hugging, sharing cups and eating utensils) with people who are infected.
• Disinfect frequently touched surfaces (toys, doorknobs, etc.), especially if someone is sick.

LEPROSY

The prevention of leprosy ultimately lies in the early diagnosis and treatment of those individuals suspected or diagnosed as having leprosy, thereby preventing further transmission of the disease to others.

• Public education and community awareness are crucial to encourage individuals with leprosy and their families to undergo evaluation and treatment with MDT.
• Household contacts of patients with leprosy should be monitored closely for the development of leprosy signs and symptoms.
• A study demonstrated that prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin was 57% effective in preventing leprosy for the first two years in individuals who have close contact with newly diagnosed patients with leprosy.
• There is currently no widely used standard for using medications for the prevention of leprosy.
• Currently, there is no single commercial vaccine that confers complete immunity against leprosy in all individuals.
• Several vaccines, including the BCG vaccine, provide variable levels of protection against leprosy in certain populations

References

• http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/basics/prevention/con-20021761
• http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/prevention-treatment.html
• http://www.emedicinehealth.com/leprosy/page10_em.htm

MEASLES

What is measles?
Measles is a very contagious (easily spread) infection that causes a rash all over your body. It is also called rubeola or red measles.

The measles vaccine protects against the illness. This vaccine is part of the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) and MMRV (measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella [chickenpox]) vaccines. Most children get the vaccine as part of their regular shots. This is why measles is rare in Canada and the United States.

What causes measles?
Measles is caused by a virus. It is spread when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or shares food or drinks. The measles virus can travel through the air. This means that you can get measles if you are near someone who has the virus even if that person doesn't cough or sneeze directly on you.

You can spread the virus to others from 4 days before the rash starts until 4 days after the rash appeared. The virus is most often spread when people first get sick, before they know they have it.

What are the symptoms?

• The first symptoms of measles are like a :
• bad cold—a high fever, 
• a runny nose, 
• a hacking cough. 
• The lymph nodes in your neck may swell. 
• You also may feel very tired and have red, sore eyes. 
• You may develop white spots inside your mouth.

These symptoms are followed by a red blotchy rash , beginning behind your ears and spreading downwards, all over your body.

Children under 5 years of age and adults are more likely to get very sick with measles.

It takes about 7 to 18 days, but rarely as long as 21 days, to get symptoms after you have been around someone who has measles. This is called the incubation period. The measles rash usually appears about 14 days after you have been around someone with measles. But it could take as long as 21 days before you see the rash.

How is it treated?

Measles usually gets better with home care. You can take medicine to lower your fever, if needed. Read and follow all instructions on the label. Also, get plenty of rest and drink lots of fluids. Stay away from other people as much as you can so that you don't spread the disease. Anyone who has measles must stay out of school, daycare, work, and public places until at least 4 days after the rash first appeared.

Getting your child vaccinated is important, because measles can sometimes cause serious problems.

 References

• http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/measles/basics/definition/con-20019675

TUBERCULOSIS (TB)

Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack any part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain. If not treated properly, TB disease can be fatal.

TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The TB bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become infected.

TB is NOT spread by

• shaking someone's hand
• sharing food or drink
• touching bed linens or toilet seats
• sharing toothbrushes
• kissing
• Latent TB Infection and TB Disease

Not everyone infected with TB bacteria becomes sick. As a result, two TB-related conditions exist: latent TB infection and TB disease.

Latent TB Infection bacteria can live in the body without making you sick. This is called latent TB infection. In most people who breathe in TB bacteria and become infected, the body is able to fight the bacteria to stop them from growing. People with latent TB infection do not feel sick and do not have any symptoms. People with latent TB infection are not infectious and cannot spread TB bacteria to others. However, if TB bacteria become active in the body and multiply, the person will go from having latent TB infection to being sick with TB disease.

TB Disease bacteria become active if the immune system can't stop them from growing. When TB bacteria are active (multiplying in your body), this is called TB disease. People with TB disease are sick. They may also be able to spread the bacteria to people they spend time with every day.

Many people who have latent TB infection never develop TB disease. Some people develop TB disease soon after becoming infected (within weeks) before their immune system can fight the TB bacteria. Other people may get sick years later when their immune system becomes weak for another reason.

For people whose immune systems are weak, especially those with HIV infection, the risk of developing TB disease is much higher than for people with normal immune systems.

Symptoms of TB disease include:

• a bad cough that lasts 3 weeks or longer
• pain in the chest
• coughing up blood or sputum
• weakness or fatigue
• weight loss
• no appetite
• chills
• fever
• sweating at night

TB Risk Factors

Once a person is infected with TB bacteria, the chance of developing TB disease is higher if the person:

• Has HIV infection;
• Has been recently infected with TB bacteria (in the last 2 years);
• Has other health problems, like diabetes, that make it hard for the body to fight bacteria;
• Abuses alcohol or uses illegal drugs; or
• Was not treated correctly for TB infection in the past.

Treatment for Latent TB Infection

Male patient speaking with doctorIf you have latent TB infection but not TB disease, your health care provider may want you be treated to keep you from developing TB disease. Treatment of latent TB infection reduces the risk that TB infection will progress to TB disease. Treatment of latent TB infection is essential to controlling and eliminating TB in the United States. The decision about taking treatment for latent TB infection will be based on your chances of developing TB disease.

Treatment for TB Disease

TB disease can be treated by taking several drugs, usually for 6 to 9 months. It is very important to finish the medicine, and take the drugs exactly as prescribed. If you stop taking the drugs too soon, you can become sick again. If you do not take the drugs correctly, the germs that are still alive may become resistant to those drugs. TB that is resistant to drugs is harder and more expensive to treat.

References

• http://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/basics/default.htm

STD (SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections that you can get from having sex with someone who has the infection. The causes of STDs are bacteria, parasites and viruses. There are more than 20 types of STDs, including

• Chlamydia
• Gonorrhea
• Genital herpes
• HIV/AIDS
• HPV
• Syphilis
• Trichomoniasis

Most STDs affect both men and women, but in many cases the health problems they cause can be more severe for women. If a pregnant woman has an STD, it can cause serious health problems for the baby.

If you have an STD caused by bacteria or parasites, your health care provider can treat it with antibiotics or other medicines. If you have an STD caused by a virus, there is no cure. Sometimes medicines can keep the disease under control. Correct usage of latex condoms greatly reduces, but does not completely eliminate, the risk of catching or spreading STDs.

Some of the things that increase a person's chances of getting an STD are:

Sexual activity at a young age. The younger a person starts having sex, the greater his or her chances of becoming infected with an STD.

Lots of sex partners. People who have sexual contact — not just intercourse, but any form of intimate activity — with many different partners are more at risk than those who stay with the same partner.

Unprotected sex. Latex condoms are the only form of birth control that reduce your risk of getting an STD, and must be used every time. Spermicides, diaphragms, and other birth control methods may help prevent pregnancy, but they don't protect a person against STDs.

• http://kidshealth.org/teen/sexual_health/stds/std.html
• http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/sexuallytransmitteddiseases.html

HAWAR

Hawar 


Hawar adalah jangkitan wabak secara semulajadi yang melibatkan tikus berlaku di merata tempat di seluruh dunia. Penyakit epidemik akut yang melibatkan tikus dan roden liar berlaku di bahagian tengah, timur dan selatan Afrika, Amerika Selatan, bahagian barat Amerika Utara dan di sebahagian besar Asia.

Di sesetengah kawasan, kontak antara tikus hutan dan tikus rumah biasa berlaku dan boleh menyebabkan kes jangkitan manusia dan kadang-kala menjadi wabak. Ia disebabkan Yersinia pestis.

Jangkitan kutu yang  menular dari tikus ke haiwan lain dan manusia. Jangkitan manusia ke manusia tidak berlaku kecuali semasa wabak pneumonik, apabila titisan cecair pernafasan daripada pesakit menjangkiti orang lain semasa berdekatan.

Wabak juga boleh merebak melalui sentuhan dengan objek yang tercemar (contoh: tisu/tuala), atau cecair atau nanah haiwan yang dijangkiti.

Tempoh pengeraman : 1 hingga 7 hari

Pelancung adalah berisiko rendah. Walau bagaimanapun perjalanan ke kawasan dimana penyakit hawar biasa berlaku (endemik) di kawasan luar bandar mempunyai risiko, terutamanya jika berkhemah atau memburu atau jika tersentuh tikus.

Tanda dan Gejala

Demam
Batuk
Bengkak  yang sakit di pangkal peha, leher dan ketiak
Muntah
Jangkitan terbahagi kepada 3 jenis:

Hawar Bubonik: Berpunca dari gigitan kutu yang dijangkiti menyebabkan radang pada kelenjar limfa (limfadenitis) dan sekitar kelenjar limfa. Ciri utama: Bengkak yang sakit dan bernanah.

Hawar Septisemik: Merebak dari wabak bubonik atau berlaku semasa ketiadaan limfadenitis. Jangkitan menular ke dalam aliran darah menyebabkan keradangan di selaput otak (meningitis), renjatan endotoksid dan pendarahan yang teruk akibat Penggumpalan Intravasel Tersebar (Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation - DIVC).

Hawar Pneumonik: Jangkitan boleh menular ke paru-paru dan menyebabkan pneumonia yang teruk. Pesakit boleh merebakkan penyakit melalui titisan cecair pernafasan. Individu yang terkena titisan/cecair  tersebut boleh mendapat jangkitan paru-paru.


Tanpa rawatan segera dan berkesan, 50 hingga 60% dari kes boleh membawa maut.

Kesan septisemik yang tidak dirawat boleh menyebabkan renjatan endotoksid dan Penggumpalan Intravasel Tersebar (Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation - DIVC) manakala pneumonia teruk berlaku semasa wabak pneumonik.

Rawatan

Rawatan khusus: Streptomisin adalah disarankan. Ubat lain termasuklah gentamisin, tetrasiklin dan kloramfenikol.

Pencegahan

Jika anda melawat kawasan yang dijangkiti:

Elakkan memegang tikus yang hidup atau mati
Elakkan berada di tempat yang sesak
Elakkan gigitan kutu dengan menggunakan repelan dan racun serangga
Elakkan mengendali tikus mati dan laporkan kepada pihak kesihatan jika terjumpa tikus mati
Jika anda berhubungan dengan orang yang dijangkiti, elakkan menyentuh cecair tubuh pesakit dan dapatkan rawatan awal
Simpan dan lupuskan sisa makanan/sampah dengan betul supaya tikus tidak mencerobohi makanan dan tempat tinggal anda.

References

• http://www.myhealth.gov.my/index.php/my/hawar-plague

TYPE OF PLAGUE

What Is the Plague?

The plague is a serious bacterial infection that can be deadly. Sometimes referred to as the "black plague," the disease is caused by bacteria called Yersinia pestis. This bacteria is found on animals throughout the world and is usually transmitted to humans through fleas.

Types of Plague

There are three basic forms of plague.

• Bubonic Plague
• Pneumonic plague 
• septicemic plague 

Bubonic Plague 

The most common form of plague is bubonic plague. It is usually contracted when an infected rodent or flea bites you. In very rare cases, you can get the bacteria from material that has come into contact with an infected person.

Bubonic plague infects your lymphatic system (immune system), causing inflammation. Untreated, it can move into the blood and cause septicemic plague, or to the lungs, causing pneumonic plague.

Signs and Symptoms of the Plague

Symptoms of bubonic plague generally appear within two to seven days and include:

• fever and chills
• headache
• muscle pain
• general weakness
• seizures

You may also experience painful, swollen lymph glands, called buboes. These typically appear in the groin, armpits, neck, or site of the insect bite or scratch. The buboes are what gives bubonic plague its name.


Pneumonic Plague

When the bacteria multiply in the lungs, you have pneumonic plague—the most serious form of the disease. When a person with pneumonic plague coughs, the bacteria from their lungs are expelled into the air. Other people who breathe that air can also develop this highly contagious form of plague, which can lead to an epidemic.

Pneumonic Plague Symptoms

Pneumonic plague symptoms may appear as quickly as one day after exposure to the bacteria and include:

• trouble breathing
• chest pain
• cough
• fever
• headache
• overall weakness
• bloody sputum (saliva and mucus or pus from the lungs)

Septicemic Plague

When the bacteriamultiply in the bloodstream, it is calledsepticemic plague. When untreated, both bubonic and pneumonic plague can lead to septicemic plague.

Septicemic Plague Symptoms

Septicemic plague symptoms usually start within two to seven days after exposure, but septicemic plague can lead to death before symptoms even appear. Symptoms can include:

• abdominal pain
• diarrhea
• nausea and vomiting
• fever and chills
• weakness
• bleeding (blood may not be able to clot)
• shock

Septicemic plague is what people are referring to when they call the plague "Black Death."  It is also spread by flea bites, but can be contracted by handling dead animals that were infected.  Septicemic plague can present as the first sign of infection or it can develop from untreated bubonic plague.  Along with the fever, chills, and body aches of bubonic plague, septicemic plague also causes severe abdominal pain and shock.  The disease microorganisms spread through the blood and those infected actually begin bleeding into their skin and organs.  The skin turns black and dies.

references

• http://www.healthline.com/health/plague#Symptoms4
• http://www.steadyhealth.com/articles/the-black-death-in-modern-times-a3553.html

BALCK DEATH

BLACK DEATH  :  HISTORY OF PLAGUE 



The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people and peaking in Europe in the years 1346–53. Although there were several competing theories as to the etiology of the Black Death, analysis of DNA from victims in northern and southern Europe published in 2010 and 2011 indicates that the pathogen responsible was the Yersinia pestis bacterium, probably causing several forms of plague.

The Origin of the disease

The plague disease, caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, Northern India and Uganda. Nestorian graves dating to 1338–9 near Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgizstan have inscriptions referring to plague and are thought by many epidemiologists to mark the outbreak of the epidemic, from which it could easily have spread to China and India. In October 2010, medical geneticists suggested that all three of the great waves of the plague originated in China. In China, the 13th century Mongol conquest caused a decline in farming and trading. However, economic recovery had been observed at the beginning of the 14th century. In the 1330s a large number of natural disasters and plagues led to widespread famine, starting in 1331, with a deadly plague arriving soon after. Epidemics which may have included plague killed an estimated 25 million Chinese and other Asians during the 15 years before it reached Constantinople in 1347. However, according to George Sussman, the first obvious medical description of plague in China dates to 1644.

The disease may have travelled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders or it could have come via ship. By the end of 1346, reports of plague had reached the seaports of Europe: "India was depopulated, Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies".


Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe at the trading city of Caffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering from the disease, the army catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, taking the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread north.Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several existing conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death.


references

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death

CHIKUNGUNYA

Chikungunya Virus

Chikungunya virus is transmitted to people by mosquitoes. The most common symptoms of chikungunya virus infection are fever and joint pain.


First Outbreak

chikungunya virus was found for the first time in the Americas on islands in the Caribbean. There is a risk that the virus will be imported to new areas by infected travelers. There is no vaccine to prevent or medicine to treat chikungunya virus infection.

The incubation period

Symptoms usually begin 3–7 days after being bitten by an infected mosquito.

Target organ and symptoms

The most common symptoms are fever and joint pain.
Other symptoms may include headache, muscle pain, joint swelling, or rash.
Chikungunya disease does not often result in death, but the symptoms can be severe and disabling.
Most patients feel better within a week. In some people, the joint pain may persist for months.
People at risk for more severe disease include newborns infected around the time of birth, older adults (≥65 years), and people with medical conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or heart disease.

Treatment
There is no medicine to treat chikungunya virus infection or disease.
Decrease the symptoms:
Get plenty of rest
Drink fluids to prevent dehydration
Take medicines, such as ibuprofen, naproxen, acetaminophen, or paracetamol, to relieve fever and pain.

reference

• http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/
• http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/symptoms/